SCIENCE PAPER

Biodiversity Matters: Protecting Earth’s Web of Life

Biodiversity

Biodiversity, derived from the term "biological diversity," refers to the variety and variability of life within a defined area. Unlike the concept of "species diversity," which focuses on the number of species in a given area, biodiversity encompasses the diversity within and among species, genes, and ecosystems. The term gained prominence to highlight the complexity of life forms and their interactions within a region. The United Nations Earth Summit recognized biodiversity's importance by defining it as:

Biological diversity refers to the variability among living organisms from all sources, including terrestrial, marine, and other aquatic ecosystems and the ecological complexes of which they are a part. This includes diversity within species, between species, and of ecosystems.

This definition was formalized in the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1962.

Levels of Biodiversity

Biodiversity is categorized into three hierarchical levels: genetic, species, and ecosystem diversity.

Genetic Diversity

Genetic diversity refers to the variation in the genetic makeup of individuals within and among species. This diversity allows populations to adapt to their environments and respond to natural selection, serving as the foundation for speciation. Genetic diversity can be observed at various levels of biological organization, including kingdoms, phyla, families, and species. Significant genetic diversity is usually found between organisms from different kingdoms (e.g., plants versus animals), between phyla (e.g., arthropods versus chordates), and between classes (e.g., birds versus reptiles).

Species Diversity

Species diversity is defined by the biological species concept, which describes species as groups of actually or potentially interbreeding natural populations that are reproductively isolated from other such groups. Therefore, species diversity refers to the variety of species within a region, often measured by species richness. However, in a broader sense, species diversity also includes species evenness, which accounts for the relative abundance of species in an area.

Taxonomic and Ecosystem Diversity

Taxonomic (or phylogenetic) diversity is also an integral part of species diversity. It reflects the genetic relationships among different species groups. A community with greater taxonomic diversity is considered genetically richer compared to a community with less taxonomic diversity.

Ecosystem Diversity

Ecosystems consist of not only all the species within them but also the abiotic factors that define them. In a desert ecosystem, for example, factors like soil type, temperature range, rainfall patterns, and solar radiation influence both the species that inhabit it and their physical traits, behaviors, and interactions. Ecosystem diversity is a key component of biodiversity, encompassing habitat diversity, the variety of niches, and the different trophic levels within an ecosystem. These elements collectively enhance species diversity within an ecosystem. Ecosystems with higher diversity in these aspects are more likely to support a broader range of species because they provide a variety of habitats, niches, and trophic levels, each suitable for different species.

Biodiversity Gradients and Magnitude

Gradients of Biodiversity

Biodiversity varies with latitude and altitude. As one moves from the poles towards the equator, biodiversity increases, and conversely, it decreases when moving away from the equator. This increase in species richness or biodiversity, from poles to tropics, is known as the latitudinal gradient in species diversity, one of the most well-documented patterns in ecology.

Generally, species diversity diminishes as we move from the equator towards the poles. With few exceptions, tropical regions (23.5° N to 23.5° S) host more species than temperate or polar regions. For instance, Colombia, near the equator, has nearly 1,400 species of birds, while New York at 41° N has about 105 species, and Greenland at 71° N only about 56 species. India, largely within tropical latitudes, is home to over 1,200 bird species. The Amazon rainforest in South America, which has the greatest biodiversity on Earth, is home to more than 40,000 species of plants. Several hypotheses have been proposed to explain these latitudinal gradients in species richness, with the following being the most discussed.

Climatic Hypothesis:

This hypothesis suggests that climate is a major factor behind the latitudinal gradient in biodiversity.

It proposes two main reasons:

1) Fewer species can physiologically tolerate the harsh conditions at higher latitudes.

2) The lower climate stability at higher latitudes may lead to higher extinction rates.

Evolutionary History Hypothesis:

This hypothesis posits that tropical communities are generally older than temperate or polar communities. Over time, species diversity in tropical communities may increase due to more frequent speciation events. It's estimated that speciation occurs about five times more frequently in the tropics than near the poles.

Species-Energy Hypothesis:

This hypothesis asserts that the amount of available energy limits species richness. Increased solar energy at low latitudes boosts net primary productivity, which supports a greater number of individuals and, consequently, more species in an area.

Biotic Hypotheses and Altitudinal Biodiversity Variation

The Biotic Hypotheses propose that ecological interactions such as competition, predation, mutualism, and parasitism are more intense in the tropics. These interactions promote species coexistence and specialization, leading to higher speciation rates in tropical regions.

Similar to latitudinal variations, altitudinal variations also influence biodiversity. As altitude increases, biodiversity decreases. A 1000-meter rise in altitude typically results in a temperature drop of about 8.5°C. This temperature decline, coupled with greater seasonal variability at higher altitudes, significantly contributes to the reduction in species diversity.

Magnitude of Biodiversity

Earth is home to an astounding diversity of life, though determining the exact number of species remains a challenging task. According to the IUCN in 2004, approximately 1.5 million plant and animal species have been described, representing only a fraction of the total species on Earth. Estimates of global species diversity vary widely, with some extreme estimates ranging from 20 to 50 million species. However, biologist Robert May suggests a more conservative estimate of around 7 million species globally. It's crucial to note that these estimates exclude prokaryotic species, whose numbers and diversity remain largely unknown.

The distribution of known species is uneven among taxonomic groups. Animals account for over 70 percent of described species, while plants, including algae and fungi, comprise about 22 percent. Among animals, insects dominate, making up more than 70 percent of the total species count. To put it simply, for every 10 animals on Earth, approximately 7 are insects.

Approximate Numbers of Named Species on Earth

| Group | Number of Named Species

| Mammals | 4,650

| Birds | 9,700

| Reptiles | 7,150

| Fishes | 26,959

| Amphibians | 4,780

| Insects | 1,025,000

| Vascular Plants | 270,000

| Algae | 40,000

| Protozoans | 40,000

Source: Gibbs (2001), On the Termination of Species. Scientific American.

Why Does Earth Have Such Extraordinary Biodiversity?

The extraordinary biodiversity on Earth can be attributed to several key factors. One of the primary reasons is the long history of evolution and speciation, during which diverse life forms have emerged and adapted to various habitats over millions of years. Another major factor is the presence of diverse ecosystems across the planet, each with its own unique conditions and niches, allowing a wide range of species to coexist and thrive. Other contributing factors include geographical features, climate patterns, ecological interactions, and genetic variations within species.

Biodiversity of India

India is recognized as a megadiverse nation, a status granted to countries that harbor a significant portion of Earth's species, making them exceptionally biodiverse. To qualify as a megadiverse country, a nation must:

1. Have at least 5,000 endemic plant species.

2. Contain marine ecosystems within its borders.

The primary criterion for being designated a megadiverse country is endemism. To date, 17 countries have been identified as megadiverse, with a particular focus on species richness. These countries include the United States, Mexico, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Venezuela, Brazil, the Democratic Republic of Congo, South Africa, Madagascar, India, Malaysia, Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, China, and Australia.

India, while covering only 2.4% of the world's land area, is home to 11% of the world's flora and 6.5% of its fauna. The country hosts 172 species, or 2.9%, of the IUCN-designated threatened species. India boasts 350 species of mammals, 1,200 species of birds, 453 species of reptiles (ranking fifth in the world), and 45,000 plant species, the majority of which are angiosperms. It is estimated that 10% of Indian plant species are endemic. Additionally, India is home to four of the 36 globally recognized biodiversity hotspots: the Himalayas, the Western Ghats, Indo-Burma, and Sundaland.

Uses of Biodiversity

At the ecosystem level, biodiversity provides the necessary conditions for processes that sustain the global economy and human survival.

The benefits and services provided by ecosystems include:

Ecosystem Services

Biodiversity is crucial for maintaining ecosystem services and ensuring their sustainable use. These services include maintaining the gaseous composition of the atmosphere, climate regulation by forests and oceanic systems, natural pest control, pollination of plants by insects and birds, soil formation and protection, water conservation and purification, and nutrient cycling.

Prevention and Mitigation of Natural Disasters

Forests and grasslands play a vital role in protecting landscapes against erosion, nutrient loss, and landslides through the binding action of roots. Ecosystems along flood-prone rivers, such as floodplain forests and wetlands, help absorb excess water, thereby reducing the damage caused by floods.

Source of Economically Important Products

Approximately 150 crops feed most of the human population today, but just 12 of them provide about 80% of food energy, with wheat, rice, maize, and potato alone contributing about 60%. Similarly, about 30 mammalian and bird species are used extensively, but only 15 account for over 90% of global livestock production. Biodiversity expands the range of food products suitable for human consumption. Wild biodiversity offers a variety of essential foodstuffs, including fruits, meats, nuts, mushrooms, honey, spices, and flavorings. These wild foods are particularly important when agricultural supplies fail. In fact, wild biodiversity acts as a safeguard against the failure of even the most advanced agricultural systems. For example, the productivity of many agricultural crops in the developed world is maintained through the genetic diversity provided by wild species.

Continual Assimilation of Genetic Diversity

To maintain resilience against ever-evolving threats like pests and diseases, agricultural systems regularly incorporate new genes from wild relatives of crops. This genetic infusion fortifies crops with resistance, ensuring stable harvests despite these challenges.

Medicines from Biodiversity

Biodiversity serves as a treasure trove of therapeutic substances, such as morphine (an analgesic), quinine (used to treat malaria), and taxol (an anticancer drug). A substantial portion of pharmaceuticals is derived, either directly or indirectly, from biological sources. However, only a small fraction of the vast diversity of organisms has been fully explored for potential new drugs, indicating immense untapped potential in nature’s pharmacy.

Industrial Materials

Biological resources are a crucial source of a wide variety of industrial materials, including building materials, fibers, dyes, resins, gums, adhesives, rubber, and oils. The diversity of life holds enormous potential for yielding economically valuable materials from an even wider array of organisms.

Aesthetic and Cultural Benefits

Biodiversity also holds great aesthetic and cultural significance. This includes activities like ecotourism, bird-watching, wildlife observation, pet keeping, and gardening. The beauty of nature captivates many, providing a deep connection and immense satisfaction when experiencing the natural world. For some, landscapes hold cultural or spiritual significance, while others are simply drawn to the aesthetic qualities of the environment.

Total Economic Value of Biodiversity

Biodiversity's economic value can be categorized into several areas:

- Direct Use: This includes consumptive uses like the harvesting of economically important products such as food and medicines.

- Indirect Use: Biodiversity supports and regulates ecosystem services, providing essential functions that maintain ecological balance.

- Non-consumptive Use: Eco-tourism, education, recreation, and cultural and aesthetic appreciation fall under this category, highlighting the non-material benefit derived from biodiversity.

Consequences of Biodiversity Loss

There is substantial evidence suggesting that the ongoing decline in biodiversity will lead to a corresponding decline in ecosystem functioning and stability. Experiments that manipulate components of biodiversity, such as species richness, composition, evenness, and genetic diversity, have shown that these factors significantly influence ecosystem functioning and stability. These studies, conducted across various ecosystems—lab settings, grasslands, forests, marine, and freshwater environments—demonstrate that ecosystem stability often hinges on species richness and composition. Therefore, the contemporary loss of biodiversity is likely to result in significant changes to ecosystem properties. To fully understand the implications of biodiversity decline, further research at larger spatial and temporal scales in managed ecosystems is essential.

Threats to Biodiversity

The most glaring sign of biodiversity loss is the extinction of species. While extinction is a natural occurrence that has been ongoing since life began, the alarming concern today lies in the accelerated rate at which species are disappearing. Estimating the exact number of species on Earth is challenging, and so is determining the precise rate of current species loss. However, using a conservative estimate of 10 million species, scientists believe that between 0.2 and 0.6 percent of these species are vanishing each year. This rate is estimated to be at least 10,000 times higher than the natural, or "background," rate of extinction, as derived from the fossil record. The principal causes of biodiversity loss can be categorized as follows:

Habitat Loss and Fragmentation

A habitat refers to the place or environment where an organism or population naturally lives. When a natural habitat, like a forest or wetland, is altered so drastically that it can no longer sustain the species it once supported, the result is habitat loss or destruction. This process often leads to the displacement or annihilation of plant and animal populations, resulting in a significant reduction in biodiversity. It's crucial to distinguish between habitat destruction and habitat degradation. The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) defines habitat degradation as a decline in the quality of a specific habitat that diminishes the survival and reproductive success of species within that habitat. Habitat fragmentation, on the other hand, refers to the breaking up of a continuous habitat into smaller, isolated pieces. Habitat loss is the leading cause of biodiversity decline. When humans cut down forests, fill wetlands, plow grasslands, or burn forests, they disrupt the natural habitats of countless species. These alterations often kill or displace many organisms, and also disrupt the intricate web of interactions among species. Species that inhabit the deeper parts of a forest are typically the first to disappear when large tracts of forests are fragmented.

Introduction of Invasive Species

Invasive species, also known as introduced, exotic, or non-native species, are organisms that are not native to a particular ecosystem and have a tendency to alter the structure and function of that ecosystem. These species often grow and reproduce rapidly, spreading aggressively and potentially causing harm. Invasive species can lead to the extinction of native plants and animals by outcompeting them for resources and modifying their habitats, thereby contributing to biodiversity loss.

The introduction of invasive species, especially in island and freshwater ecosystems, can have devastating effects on native species. Such introductions are often a result of human activities. A well-documented case is the accidental introduction of the Atlantic comb jellyfish to the Black Sea. This invasive species has outcompeted the native fauna and now constitutes about 95 percent of the Black Sea's total biomass. Another notable example is the introduction of the Nile perch, a large freshwater fish, into Lake Victoria in East Africa. As a voracious predator, the Nile perch rapidly multiplied and preyed on the lake's native fish species, particularly the cichlids unique to Lake Victoria. The resulting population boom of the Nile perch led to a sharp decline in native fish populations and the extinction of numerous cichlid species.

In India, we are also familiar with the environmental damage and threat posed to native species by invasive weed species such as carrot grass (Parthenium hysterophorus, native to Central and South America), Lantana (Lantana camara, native to Central and South America), and water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes, native to South America). These invasive plants have caused significant ecological disruption, threatening the survival of many indigenous species.

Overexploitation

Overexploitation refers to human activities that involve the excessive capture, hunting, fishing, and harvesting of organisms. According to the IUCN, overexploitation occurs when individuals or biomass are removed from a natural population at a rate that surpasses the population's ability to replenish itself through reproduction, driving the population toward extinction. When a species is overexploited, its population declines to a level where it becomes highly vulnerable to extinction. Many species have gone extinct in the past 500 years due to overexploitation, such as the Steller's sea cow and the passenger pigeon. The dramatic decline of the African elephant, the world's largest terrestrial animal, is a classic example of overhunting's impact, driven largely by the trade in ivory. In many parts of Africa, elephant populations have plummeted due to this trade. Overexploitation can also occur as a byproduct of other activities, such as when non-target species are accidentally captured during the harvesting of other species.

Climate Change and Pollution

The connection between climate change and biodiversity has been well-established. Although Earth's climate has always undergone changes, the rapid shifts caused by human activities are outpacing many species' ability to adapt, leading to increased biodiversity loss. In addition to global warming, the frequency of extreme weather events and changing patterns of rainfall and drought are having significant effects on biodiversity. While some species might thrive under these rapidly changing conditions, the majority will struggle to adapt, resulting in a decline in biodiversity.

Biological Invasion

Biological invasion is a natural process in which invasive species colonise new areas. These species, which live outside their historical range, can significantly alter the structure and function of the ecosystems they invade. In scientific literature, these species are referred to by various terms, including introduced, non-indigenous, non-native, exotic, immigrant, and alien species.

Multiple factors contribute to biological invasions, with the invader's attributes, biotic characteristics, and environmental conditions of the new site playing crucial roles. Key attributes of successful invaders include rapid growth rates, high reproductive capacity, competitiveness, high dispersal ability, phenotypic plasticity, and the ability to survive on various food sources and in a wide range of environmental conditions.

Not all ecosystems are equally vulnerable to biological invasion. The invader's traits and the biotic and environmental characteristics of the introduced site significantly influence the invasion's success. To explain the varying vulnerability of different ecosystems to biological invasion, over 30 hypotheses have been proposed. Among these, the biotic resistance hypothesis is one of the most widely discussed.

Biotic Resistance Hypothesis

The biotic resistance hypothesis posits that ecosystems with high native species richness are more resistant to invasion than ecosystems with low species richness. This concept is a specific formulation of the diversity-stability hypothesis (Elton, 1958), which suggests that ecosystems with high biodiversity are more stable than those with low biodiversity. The biotic resistance hypothesis, also known as the diversity-invasibility hypothesis, predicts a negative correlation between native species diversity and the susceptibility to invasion. Numerous theoretical, experimental, and observational studies have supported this negative relationship in various ecosystem types. However, some studies on large ecosystems have observed the opposite pattern, reporting a positive correlation between native species diversity and invasibility.

Invasion Paradox and Acceptance Hypothesis

The "Invasion Paradox" is a concept that arises from the observation that, contrary to what the biotic resistance hypothesis suggests, some ecosystems with high biodiversity are also highly susceptible to invasive species. This paradox has led to the formulation of the "Acceptance Hypothesis," which posits that ecosystems with high environmental disturbance or variability might actually provide greater opportunities for invasive species to establish themselves.

Mediated Hypothesis:

According to this hypothesis, the likelihood of invasive species thriving is higher in ecosystems that experience frequent or intense disturbances compared to relatively undisturbed ones. Disturbance often creates openings in ecosystems, providing invasive species an equal or even improved chance of successful colonization.

Environmental Heterogeneity Hypothesis:

Ecosystems rich in environmental heterogeneity—meaning they have a wide variety of niches and fluctuating key factors like temperature, water availability, nutrients, sunlight, and physical disturbances—are believed to have a complex response to invasions. This diversity in conditions can both hinder and facilitate the establishment and impact of invasive species, depending on the specific circumstances.

Extinction of Species

Extinction is a natural and inevitable part of life's evolutionary process. It refers to the complete disappearance of a species from Earth and has been a driving force behind the evolution of life over the past 3.8 billion years. The current diversity of species is the result of ongoing processes of extinction and speciation. It's estimated that between 5 and 50 billion species have existed on Earth throughout its history. The fossil record shows that approximately 99.9% of all species that have ever lived are now extinct, and it’s likely that most of the species alive today will eventually face the same fate.

However, extinction does not occur at a constant rate. The average lifespan of a species, as observed in the fossil record, is around 4 million years. The background extinction rate, or the normal rate of extinction, is estimated to be about 0.1 species per million species per year. Alarmingly, current estimates suggest that we are losing species at a rate 1,000 to 10,000 times faster than this background rate, primarily due to human activities such as habitat destruction, invasive species introduction, overexploitation, and climate change. In the last 500 years, approximately 1,000 species are believed to have gone extinct, and the pace has accelerated significantly in recent times.

Mass Extinction

Throughout Earth’s geological history, there have been several periods characterized by mass extinctions, where a large number of species became extinct in a relatively short period due to catastrophic events or rapid environmental changes. Mass extinctions represent a significant deviation from the background extinction rates and have had profound impacts on the diversity of life on Earth.

Scientists have identified five major mass extinction events in Earth's history, each resulting in the loss of more than 70% of animal species. These mass extinctions were likely caused by a combination of factors, including asteroidal collisions, volcanic eruptions, climate cooling, sea-level changes, and shifts in habitat areas due to plate tectonic movements. The most famous of these is the end-Cretaceous extinction, which wiped out the dinosaurs and approximately 70% of all life on Earth. The prevailing theory is that this mass extinction was triggered by a massive asteroid impact, which would have thrown large amounts of debris into the atmosphere, leading to a dramatic drop in global temperatures and triggering events like local fires, earthquakes, and tsunamis.

Susceptibility to Extinction

Not all species face the same level of risk when it comes to extinction. Some are inherently more vulnerable due to a variety of life history traits that make them more susceptible to the pressures of human activity and natural disasters.

Widespread vs. Endemic Species:

Species with a broad geographic distribution, known as ubiquitous species, are generally more resilient. In contrast, endemic species—those confined to a single geographic area—are at a greater risk. If their limited habitat is lost or degraded, it could mean total extinction for these species.

Several key characteristics contribute to a species' susceptibility to extinction:

1.Large Body Size:

Larger animals typically have lower reproductive rates and require more resources, such as food and space. These factors make them particularly vulnerable to environmental changes and habitat loss.

2.Small Population Size:

Species with small populations are prone to inbreeding, which decreases genetic diversity. This lack of variability can reduce their ability to adapt to new threats, making them more vulnerable to diseases and natural disasters.

3.Low Reproductive Rate:

Species that reproduce slowly and have fewer offspring are less capable of recovering from population declines. This slow recovery can lead to an increased risk of extinction if the population is further threatened.

4.High Trophic Level:

Predators and other species at the top of the food chain often have smaller populations because less energy is available at higher trophic levels. A decline in their prey can directly threaten their survival.

5.Fixed Migratory Routes:

Species that follow specific migratory paths can be particularly at risk if these routes are disrupted. Any changes to their migratory habitats can have catastrophic effects.

6.Narrow Range of Distribution:

Species with a limited geographic range have fewer options for relocation if their habitat is compromised. This limited distribution makes them highly vulnerable to extinction when faced with environmental threats.

7 .High Specialization:

Species with highly specialized ecological roles are less adaptable to environmental changes. If their specific niches are disrupted, these species often struggle to survive.

8.Poor Dispersal Rate:

Species that are unable to disperse widely find it difficult to migrate to new habitats if their current environment becomes uninhabitable. Limited dispersal abilities thus increase their risk of extinction.

IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) provides a systematic framework for assessing the extinction risk of species through its Red List categories. This evaluation is based on precise criteria, including the rate of decline, population size, geographic distribution, and the degree of fragmentation. The IUCN Red List classifies species into nine categories:

1.Extinct (EX):

Species for which there is no reasonable doubt that the last individual has died. Examples include the Dodo and the Passenger Pigeon.

2.Extinct in the Wild (EW):

Species that exist only in cultivation (plants), captivity (animals), or as naturalized populations outside their historical range. As of 2022, 40 animal species were classified as extinct in the wild. Examples include the Alagoas Curassow and the Hawaiian Crow.

3.Critically Endangered (CR):

Species facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild.

4.Endangered (EN):

Species at a high risk of extinction in the wild.

5.Vulnerable (VU):

Species facing a high risk of endangerment in the wild.

6.Near Threatened (NT):

Species that do not currently meet the criteria for threatened categories but are close to qualifying.

7.Least Concern (LC):

Species that are widespread and abundant.

8. Data Deficient (DD):

Species for which there is insufficient data to assess their risk of extinction.

9.Not Evaluated (NE):

Species that have not yet been assessed against the IUCN criteria.

These categories help in understanding and prioritizing conservation efforts by providing a clear assessment of a species' risk and needs.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species

The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species is the most comprehensive global inventory assessing the conservation status of plant and animal species. It utilizes a rigorous set of criteria to evaluate the extinction risk of thousands of species and subspecies worldwide. This objective system assesses extinction risks based on past, present, and projected threats, ensuring high standards of scientific documentation, information management, expert review, and justification. The Red List categorizes species into eight distinct categories based on population trends, size, structure, and geographic range. Species classified as Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable are collectively termed as "Threatened."

IUCN Criteria for Threatened Species

1.Population Size Reduction:

Evaluates the decrease in population over 10 years or 3 generations.

2.Geographic Range:

Consider the area over which a species is distributed.

3.Population Size (Mature Individuals Only):

Focuses on the number of mature individuals.

4.Small or Restricted Population:

Examines the size and restricted distribution of a species.

5.Probability of Extinction:

Assesses the likelihood of a species going extinct.

These criteria often include sub-criteria to justify the listing of a species in a particular category. Each species is assessed against all relevant criteria, even if some may be less applicable. The key is whether any one or all criteria are met.

IUCN Red List Categories

-Critically Endangered (CR): Species facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. Examples include the Gharial, Great Indian Bustard, Ganges Shark, and Pygmy Hog. A species is categorized as Critically Endangered if it meets any of the specific criteria for this status.

- Endangered (EN):

Species at a very high risk of extinction in the wild.

- Vulnerable (VU):

Species at a high risk of extinction in the wild.

Each species must be evaluated against all criteria to determine its appropriate classification, ensuring that the most accurate conservation status is assigned.

IUCN Red List Categories and Criteria

Critically Endangered

A species is classified as Critically Endangered if it meets any of the following criteria:

- Population Reduction: A decline of 80-90% over 10 years or 3 generations.

- Geographic Range: Extent of occurrence less than 100 km².

- Population Size: Fewer than 250 mature individuals.

- Extinction Probability: At least a 50% chance of extinction within 10 years or 3 generations.

Critically Endangered species often face a genetically closed system, increasing the risk of inbreeding and homozygosity. This results in loss of genetic diversity and inbreeding depression, which reduces offspring fitness.

Endangered

An Endangered species is at risk of extinction and meets one or more of the following criteria:

-Population Reduction: A decline of 50-70% over 10 years or 3 generations.

-Geographic Range: Extent of occurrence less than 5,000 km².

-Population Size: Fewer than 2,500 mature individuals.

-Extinction Probability: At least a 20% chance of extinction within 20 years or 5 generations.

Examples include the red panda, snow leopard, Bengal tiger, one-horned rhinoceros, and blackbuck.

Vulnerable

A species is categorized as Vulnerable if it faces a high risk of becoming Endangered in the near future, meeting any of these criteria:

- Population Reduction: A decline of 30-50% over 10 years or 3 generations.

- Geographic Range: Extent of occurrence less than 20,000 km².

- Population Size: Fewer than 10,000 mature individuals.

- Extinction Probability: At least a 10% chance of extinction within 100 years.

Near Threatened

Species classified as Near Threatened do not currently qualify as Critically Endangered, Endangered, or Vulnerable but are close to qualifying or likely to qualify for these categories in the near future.

Examples include polar bears, giraffes, and white rhinos.

Least Concern

Species in the Least Concern category are widespread and abundant, and do not meet the criteria for Critically Endangered, Endangered, Vulnerable, or Near Threatened.

Data Deficient

The Data Deficient category indicates that there is insufficient information to assess a species’ risk of extinction based on its distribution or population status.

Threatened Species Statistics (2009)

According to the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species, among the 47,677 species assessed:

- 17,251 are threatened.

- 8,492 are Critically Endangered.

- 6,195 are Endangered.

- 2,604 are Vulnerable.

Threatened species include:

- 21% of all known mammals.

- 30% of all known amphibians.

- 12% of all known birds.

- 28% of all known reptiles.

- 37% of all known freshwater fishes.

- 70% of all known plants.

- 35% of all known invertebrates.

Threatened Species Statistics by Major Groups (1996-2021)

Vertebrates

- Mammals

- Described Species: 5,919

- Number Evaluated (2021):2,033

-Threatened Species:1,442

- Amphibians

- Described Species: 8,309

- Number Evaluated (2021):6,492

- Threatened Species: 3,146

- Fishes

- Described Species:35,797

- Number Evaluated (2021):7,212

- Threatened Species:2,235

- Subtotal for Vertebrates:

- Total Described Species:73,118

- Total Evaluated: 22,005

- Threatened Species:6,823

Invertebrates

- Insects

- Described Species:1,053,578

- Number Evaluated (2021): 9,914

- Threatened Species: 4,600

- Molluscs

- Described Species:81,719

- Number Evaluated (2021): 10,865

- Threatened Species:8,557

- Crustaceans

- Described Species:80,122

- Number Evaluated (2021):3,189

- Threatened Species:1,500

- Corals

- Described Species:2,175

- Number Evaluated (2021):864

-Threatened Species:743

- Arachnids

- Described Species:110,615

- Number Evaluated (2021):393

- Threatened Species:237

- Velvet Worms

- Described Species:227

- Number Evaluated (2021): 218

- Threatened Species:11

- Horseshoe Crabs

- Described Species: 04

- Number Evaluated (2021): 09

- Threatened Species:04

- Others

- Described Species: 151,801

- Number Evaluated (2021): 02

- Threatened Species:844

- Subtotal for Invertebrates:

- Total Described Species: 1,480,241

- Total Evaluated: 25,051

- Threatened Species:17,212

Plants

- Mosses

- Described Species: 21,925

- Number Evaluated (2021): 282

- Threatened Species:165

- Ferns and Allies

- Described Species: 11,800

- Number Evaluated (2021):678

- Threatened Species: 266

- Gymnosperms

- Described Species:1,113

- Number Evaluated (2021):1,016

- Threatened Species: 403

- Flowering Plants

- Described Species: 369,000

- Number Evaluated (2021):52,077

- Threatened Species: 20,883

- Green Algae

- Described Species:11,616

- Number Evaluated (2021):16

- Threatened Species: 09

- Red Algae

- Described Species: 7,291

- Number Evaluated (2021):58

-Threatened Species: 21,726

- Subtotal for Plants:

- Total Described Species: 422,745

- Total Evaluated: 54,127

- Threatened Species:43,649

Fungi and Protists

- Lichens

- Described Species: 17,000

- Number Evaluated (2021): 106

- Threatened Species:368

- Mushrooms

- Described Species:120,000

- Number Evaluated (2021):06

- Threatened Species:15

- Brown Algae

- Described Species: 4,317

- Number Evaluated (2021):252

- Threatened Species:440

- Subtotal for Fungi and Protists:

- Total Described Species: 141,317

- Total Evaluated: 37,460

- Threatened Species:823

Overall Totals

• Total Described Species -2,117,421

• Total Evaluated -134,425

• Total Threatened Species -62,455

Note:

Changes in the number of threatened species over time reflect increased assessment efforts rather than genuine trends in biodiversity status.

For more accurate biodiversity trends, refer to the IUCN Red List Index.

Conservation of Biodiversity

Biodiversity, encompassing the variety of life forms on Earth, provides essential economic, aesthetic, health, and cultural benefits crucial for sustainable development. Despite its importance, the world is experiencing a rapid decline in biological diversity across genes, species, and ecosystems. This decline is predominantly driven by human activities, including global consumption patterns, trade, agricultural and industrial expansion, and population growth.

The full economic and ecosystem value of biodiversity remains inadequately understood, particularly concerning the interdependence of species and the cascading effects of species extinction. Addressing the accelerated loss of biodiversity and conserving existing biological diversity are pivotal global challenges for achieving sustainable development.

Conservation refers to the protection, preservation, management, or restoration of wildlife and natural resources like forests and water. Effective biodiversity conservation ensures the survival of numerous threatened species and habitats affected by human activities. It involves active management of the biosphere to preserve species diversity, maintain genetic variability, and sustain ecosystem functions such as nutrient cycling. Additionally, conservation aims to use resources sustainably, balancing current needs with future generations' aspirations. Conservation efforts must integrate both biological and abiotic resources to be successful.

IUCN, 1992

In-Situ and Ex-Situ Conservation

Conservation strategies fall into two main categories: in-situ and ex-situ conservation.

In-Situ Conservation: This strategy focuses on preserving habitats and ecosystems in their natural environment.

Examples include:

- Biosphere Reserves (terrestrial and marine)

- National Parks

- Wildlife Sanctuaries

- Sacred Groves

- Biodiversity Hotspots

These areas are protected and managed to maintain the natural balance and diversity of species within their native habitats.

Ex-Situ Conservation: This approach involves relocating species from their native habitats to safer locations such as:

- Zoological Gardens

- Botanical Gardens

- Seed Banks

Ex-situ conservation aims to ensure the survival of threatened species and maintain genetic diversity by preserving genetic or reproductive material or caring for living specimens for future reintroduction. Unlike In-situ conservation, which focuses on preserving species in their natural settings, ex-situ conservation involves moving species away from their native environments and managing them in controlled settings.

Both strategies are vital, but they differ fundamentally: ex-situ conservation involves the sampling and storage of species outside their natural habitats, while in-situ conservation focuses on the management and protection of species within their natural ecosystems.

Biodiversity Conservation

In-Situ Conservation

In-situ conservation focuses on preserving species within their natural habitats. This approach maintains ecological processes and habitats where organisms naturally occur, including:

- Biosphere Reserves

- National Parks

- Wildlife Sanctuaries

- Sacred Groves

- Biodiversity Hotspots

Ex-Situ Conservation

Ex-situ conservation involves safeguarding species outside their natural environments. This strategy includes:

- Zoos

- Botanical Gardens

- Seed Banks

Gene Banks

Gene banks, also known as germplasm banks, are critical for ex-situ conservation. They collect and store genetic materials, including seeds, pollen, embryos, sperm, eggs, tissue samples, and DNA. Seed banks, a specific type of gene bank, store plant seeds under low temperature and humidity conditions to preserve viability for decades.

Biodiversity Hotspots

The concept of biodiversity hotspots, introduced by British ecologist Norman Myers in 1988, identifies regions with exceptional concentrations of endemic species and significant levels of threat. To qualify as a hotspot, a region must:

1. Contain at least 1,500 species of vascular plants as endemics (>0.5% of the world’s total).

2. Have lost at least 70% of its original habitat.

Currently, 36 biodiversity hotspots have been identified, primarily in tropical forests. These areas cover just 2.3% of Earth’s land surface but house approximately 50% of the world’s endemic plant species and 42% of terrestrial vertebrates. Four of these hotspots partially fall within India:

1. Himalaya: Includes the entire Indian Himalayan region and parts of Pakistan, Tibet, Nepal, Bhutan, China, and Myanmar.

2. Western Ghats: Covers the Western Ghats in India and extends to Sri Lanka.

3. Indo-Burma: Encompasses northeastern India (excluding Assam) and includes Myanmar, Thailand, Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, and southern China.

4.Sundaland: Includes the Andaman-Nicobar Islands and parts of Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and the Philippines.

Flagship and Umbrella Species

Flagship Species

Flagship species are selected to represent broader environmental causes or ecosystems in need of conservation. These species are often chosen for their vulnerability, appeal, or distinctiveness to garner public support and awareness.

Umbrella Species

Umbrella species are selected for their extensive habitat requirements. Protecting these species often means safeguarding a broad range of other species sharing the same habitat. These species typically have large home ranges, and by ensuring sufficient habitat for their populations, the needs of many other species are also met. While umbrella species are often large animals, their primary role in conservation is their habitat use patterns rather than their popularity.

IUCN Protected Area Management Categories

The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) has established six Protected Area Management Categories, each designed to address different conservation objectives. These categories set international standards for protected areas and guide conservation planning based on management goals.

IUCN Protected Area Management Categories

1. Category Ia: Strict Nature Reserve

Strictly protected areas aimed at preserving biodiversity and geological features. Human visitation and impacts are heavily controlled to maintain conservation values, serving as critical reference sites for scientific research.

2. Category Ib: Wilderness Area

Large, largely unmodified areas that retain their natural character. These areas are protected and managed to preserve their natural state without significant human habitation. Category Ib areas are typically larger and less restricted than Category Ia.

3.Category II: National Park

Large natural or near-natural areas designated to protect ecological processes and species. These areas support environmentally and culturally compatible activities, including scientific research, education, recreation, and tourism. They may have infrastructure for visitor use, unlike Category Ia areas, where visitor use is more restricted.

4. Category III: Natural Monument or Feature

Protected areas established to safeguard specific natural features such as landforms, geological formations, or marine structures. These areas focus on preserving distinct natural monuments or features.

5.Category IV: Habitat/Species Management Area

Category IV areas are designated to protect particular species or habitats. These areas often require active management to address the needs of specific species or to maintain habitats, though this is not a mandatory requirement. These protected areas typically consist of fragments of ecosystems that need ongoing intervention to preserve their ecological values.

6.Category V: Protected Landscape/Seascape

In Category V, the focus is on landscapes or seascapes shaped by human interaction over time, which hold significant ecological, biological, cultural, and scenic value. These areas have been altered by human activity and rely on continued management to sustain their character and biodiversity.

7.Category VI: Protected Area with Sustainable Use of Natural Resources

Category VI areas aim to conserve ecosystems while allowing for sustainable use of natural resources. These are usually large areas with a significant portion in natural condition, where sustainable resource management practices are integrated with conservation goals. The balance between biodiversity conservation and resource use is central to these protected areas.

Protected Areas in India

Protected areas in India are regions where human activities are regulated to preserve nature and associated ecosystem services. According to the IUCN definition, a protected area is:

"A clearly defined geographical space, recognized, dedicated, and managed through legal or other effective means to achieve the long-term conservation of nature with associated ecosystem services and cultural values."

These areas include not only terrestrial but also marine protected areas, and can extend across borders into transboundary zones. They vary in their level of protection depending on national laws and international regulations, with some areas aimed at integrating conservation with economic activities.

Protected Areas in India

India boasts a comprehensive network of protected areas totaling 998, comprising 106 national parks, 567 wildlife sanctuaries, 105 conservation reserves, and 220 community reserves. These areas collectively cover approximately 5.28% of the country's geographical area, based on National data as of January 2023.

National Parks

National parks in India are designated and managed by the central government to protect natural landscapes and wildlife. The first national park, originally Halley National Park and now Jim Corbett National Park, was established in 1936 in Uttarakhand. Currently, India has 106 national parks spanning 44,402.95 km², which is 1.35% of the country’s total area.

Wildlife Sanctuaries

Wildlife sanctuaries are areas designated by state governments for the protection of wildlife and their habitats. These sanctuaries are not restricted to reserve forests or territorial waters and are established based on ecological, faunal, floral, or zoological significance. There are 567 wildlife sanctuaries in India, covering 122,564.86 km², which represents 3.73% of the national geographical area.

Conservation Reserves and Community Reserves

Conservation reserves and community reserves are protected areas that serve as buffers or corridors connecting national parks, wildlife sanctuaries, and reserved forests. Conservation reserves are fully government-owned and uninhabited, while community reserves may include privately owned lands used by local communities. These categories were introduced under the Wildlife (Protection) Amendment Act of 2002.

Marine Protected Areas (MPAs)

Marine protected areas in India cover regions within seas, oceans, or estuaries where human activities are regulated to preserve marine resources. These MPAs include areas within 500 meters from the high tide line and extend into the marine environment. They are managed by various authorities at local, state, or national levels.

Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere reserves are designated to include natural biomes and biological communities where human activity is integral. Established under UNESCO’s Man and Biosphere (MAB) program in 1971, these reserves represent significant natural environments. The first biosphere reserve was set up in 1979, and today there are 669 biosphere reserves across 120 countries worldwide (MAB, 2024).

Biosphere Reserves in India

Biosphere reserves in India are designated by national governments and operate under the sovereign jurisdiction of their respective states. Currently, India is home to 16 biosphere reserves, which are celebrated for their rich biological and cultural diversity, as well as their exceptionally pristine features. The primary objectives of these reserves are to conserve representative landscapes and their immense biodiversity, promote culturally and ecologically sustainable development, and support research, monitoring, education, and information exchange.

Objectives of Biosphere Reserves

Each biosphere reserve is designed to fulfill three fundamental functions, which are interrelated and mutually reinforcing:

1. Conservation Function: To contribute to the protection of landscapes, ecosystems, and species diversity.

2. Development Function: To promote economic and human development that is both socio-culturally and ecologically sustainable.

3.Logistic Function: To provide support for research, monitoring, education, and information exchange related to conservation and development issues at local, national, and global levels (UNESCO, 2005).

Structure of Biosphere Reserves

Biosphere reserves are organized into three interrelated zones, each serving a specific function:

1. Core Zone: This area represents the natural or least disturbed part of the reserve, preserving a representative ecosystem in its pristine state.

2. Buffer Zone: Surrounding the core zone, the buffer zone is managed for research, education, and training. It allows for controlled resource use and development measures to enhance conservation values. Traditional activities such as timber production, hunting, fishing, and grazing are permitted under regulated conditions.

3. Transition Zone: The outermost zone where human activities like settlements, agriculture, forestry, and recreation coexist with conservation efforts. The goal here is to balance human needs with ecological sustainability, ensuring harmony between both.

Biosphere Reserve Zonation

- Core Zone: Undisturbed ecosystems.

- Buffer Zone: Managed for research, education, and controlled resource use.

- Transition Zone: Areas of human activity integrated with conservation objectives.

This structured approach ensures that biosphere reserves effectively conserve their natural and cultural heritage while supporting sustainable development and providing a foundation for scientific research and environmental education.

List of Designated Biosphere Reserves in India

1. Nilgiri

- Area: 5,520 km²

- Date of Designation: 18.01.1988

- Location: Tamil Nadu, Kerala, and Karnataka

2. Nanda Devi

- Area: 5,860.69 km²

- Date of Designation: 01.08.1986

- Location: Uttarakhand (Chamoli, Pithoragarh, and Almora districts)

3. Nokrek

- Area: 820 km²

- Date of Designation: 01.09.1988

- Location: East, West, and South Garo Hills, Meghalaya

4. Manas

- Area: 2,837 km²

- Date of Designation: 14.03.1989

- Location: Assam (Kokrajhar, Bongaigaon, Barpeta, Nalbari, Kamrup, and Darrang districts)

5. Sundarbans

- Area: 9,630 km²

- Date of Designation: 29.03.1989

- Location: West Bengal (delta of the Ganges and Brahmaputra river system)

6. Gulf of Mannar

- Area: 10,500 km²

- Date of Designation: 18.02.1989

- Location: Tamil Nadu (extends from Rameswaram to Kanyakumari)

7. Great Nicobar

- Area: 865 km²

- Date of Designation: 06.01.1989

- Location: Southernmost island of Andaman and Nicobar Islands

8. Similipal

- Area: 4,374 km²

- Date of Designation: 21.06.1994

- Location: Mayurbhanj district, Odisha

9. Dibru-Saikhowa

- Area: 765 km²

- Date of Designation: 28.07.1997

- Location: Dibrugarh and Tinsukia districts, Assam

10. Dehang-Dibang

- Area: 5,111.5 km²

- Date of Designation: 02.09.1998

- Location: Upper Siang, West Siang, and Dibang Valley districts, Arunachal Pradesh

11. Pachmarhi

- Area: 4,981.72 km²

- Date of Designation: 03.03.1999

- Location: Betul, Hoshangabad, and Chhindwara districts, Madhya Pradesh

12. Khangchendzonga

- Area: 2,619.92 km²

- Date of Designation: 07.02.2000

- Location: North and West districts, Sikkim

13. Agasthyamalai

- Area: 3,500.36 km²

- Date of Designation: 12.11.2001

- Location: Tamil Nadu (Thirunelveli and Kanyakumari districts) and Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, and Pathanamthitta districts)

14. Achanakmar-Amarkantak

- Area: 3,835.51 km²

- Date of Designation: 30.03.2005

- Location: Anuppur and Dindori districts, Madhya Pradesh, and Bilaspur district, Chhattisgarh

15. Kachchh

- Area: 12,454 km²

- Date of Designation: 29.01.2008

- Location: Kachchh, Rajkot, Surendranagar, and Patan districts, Gujarat

16. Cold Desert

- Area: 7,770 km²

- Date of Designation: 28.08.2009

- Location: Himachal Pradesh (Pin Valley National Park, Chandratal Sanctuary, and Kibber Wildlife Sanctuary)

17. Seshachalam

- Area: 4,755.997 km²

- Date of Designation: 20.09.2010

- Location: Andhra Pradesh (Chittoor and Kadapa districts)

18. Panna

- Area: 2,998.98 km²

- Date of Designation: 25.08.2011

- Location: Madhya Pradesh (Panna and Chhattarpur districts)

Source: Ministry of Environment, Forests and Climate Change, List of Designated Biosphere Reserves, Annual Report 2013-14

Sacred Groves

Sacred groves are patches of forest, varying in size, preserved by local communities due to religious beliefs and traditional rituals passed down through generations. The level of sanctity varies among these groves, with disturbances believed to anger local deities (devatas), potentially causing diseases, natural calamities, or crop failures. For instance, the Garo and Khas tribes in North-Eastern India enforce a complete ban on human interference in their sacred groves.

Biodiversity Conservation-

International and National Efforts

Biodiversity represents an invaluable resource essential for human survival. However, this resource is being destroyed at an alarming rate. To combat this issue, efforts are being made both nationally and internationally. The Earth Summit produced a plan of action, known as Agenda 21, which includes biodiversity conservation as a key issue for the 21st century.

International Conservation Strategies

Biodiversity conservation is a global concern that transcends national borders. Several international treaties and agreements aim to enhance global cooperation and commitment to preserving biodiversity:

Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD)

The Convention on Biological Diversity, informally known as the Biodiversity Convention, was adopted during the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro on June 5, 1992. Its conceptual groundwork was laid by the Ad Hoc Working Group of Experts on Biological Diversity under the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in November 1988. The CBD was opened for signature on June 5, 1992, and came into force on December 29, 1993. It is guided by three primary objectives:

- Conservation of biological diversity.

- Sustainable use of biological diversity components.

- Fair and equitable sharing of benefits from genetic resources.

CITES (Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora)

Commonly known as the Washington Convention, CITES is an international agreement designed to protect endangered plants and animals. Drafted following a resolution adopted in 1963 by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) members, CITES was opened for signature in 1973 and entered into force on July 1, 1975. Its purpose is to ensure that international trade in wild animals and plants does not threaten their survival, providing varying levels of protection to over 35,000 species. India became a party to CITES in 1976.

World Heritage Convention (WHC)

The World Heritage Convention, formally known as the Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage, is an international treaty adopted in 1972. This convention underscores the crucial balance between human interaction and nature. It outlines the responsibilities of states to identify potential World Heritage sites and to safeguard these sites along with their national heritage.

World Heritage sites are locations of Outstanding Universal Value (OUV) to humanity, inscribed on the World Heritage List due to their exceptional significance. Examples include the Great Barrier Reef in Australia, the Galápagos Islands in Ecuador, and the Grand Canyon in the USA. Adopted by UNESCO’s General Conference in 1972 and in force since 1975, the convention aims at the identification, protection, conservation, presentation, and transmission of cultural and natural heritage to future generations. The UNESCO World Heritage Centre serves as the convention’s secretariat, with advisory bodies including ICOMOS (International Council on Monuments and Sites), ICCROM (International Centre for the Study of the Preservation and Restoration of Cultural Property), and IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature), the latter specifically advising on natural heritage.

Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals (CMS)

The Convention on Migratory Species (CMS), also known as the Bonn Convention, aims to conserve terrestrial, marine, and avian migratory species across their ranges. Parties to the CMS collaborate to protect these species and their habitats through stringent measures for the most endangered species, regional agreements for specific species, and joint research and conservation efforts.

International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture

The International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture seeks to conserve and sustainably use plant genetic resources essential for food security. It aims for fair and equitable sharing of benefits arising from their use, aligning with the Convention on Biological Diversity. The treaty covers all plant genetic resources for agriculture, while the Multilateral System of Access and Benefit-sharing specifically addresses 64 crops and forages. It also includes provisions for Farmers' Rights.

Convention on Wetlands (Ramsar Convention)

The Ramsar Convention provides a framework for national and international cooperation to conserve and wisely use wetlands and their resources. Recognizing wetlands as critical ecosystems for biodiversity and human well-being, the convention covers all aspects of wetland conservation and management

International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC)

The International Plant Protection Convention (IPPC) is dedicated to safeguarding global plant resources by preventing the spread of plant pests and promoting effective pest control measures. The IPPC establishes the framework for developing International Standards for Phytosanitary Measures (ISPMs) and supports countries in implementing these standards. This includes enhancing national capacity, facilitating national reporting, and resolving disputes.

Living Planet Index and Bioprospecting

Living Planet Index (LPI)

The Living Planet Index (LPI) assesses global biodiversity by tracking population trends of vertebrate species across terrestrial, freshwater, and marine environments. Similar to a stock market index, the LPI uses time series data to monitor changes in biodiversity. The LPI, which draws from data on 14,152 populations of 3,706 vertebrate species (including mammals, birds, fish, amphibians, and reptiles), shows a 58 percent decline in vertebrate populations from 1970 to 2012.

This significant decrease, with an average annual decline of 2 percent, indicates a severe drop in vertebrate abundance over the past four decades. The global LPI combines two indices: the temperate LPI (including polar species) and the tropical LPI. While the tropical LPI has fallen by about 60 percent in less than 40 years, the temperate LPI has increased by 29 percent. This discrepancy is evident across various species and habitats.

Bioprospecting

Bioprospecting involves exploring biochemical and genetic resources from nature to develop commercially valuable products for pharmaceuticals, agriculture, cosmetics, and other fields. This process includes sampling, isolating, characterizing, and commercializing genetic and biochemical resources. It spans both terrestrial and marine environments, with notable discoveries like trabectedin (an antitumor agent) and eribulin (a breast cancer treatment) derived from marine organisms.

Properly managed bioprospecting can generate significant revenues and contribute to biodiversity conservation and local community benefits. However, if poorly regulated, it can lead to environmental degradation, unfair benefit sharing, and exploitation of indigenous knowledge without appropriate compensation—a practice known as biopiracy.

Nagoya Protocol

The Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization, effective from October 12, 2014, is an international agreement aimed at ensuring fair and equitable benefit sharing from the use of genetic resources. This protocol complements the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) by regulating access to genetic resources and associated technologies, ensuring that benefits are shared appropriately and contributing to biodiversity conservation and sustainable use.

National Conservation Strategies

India has actively engaged in numerous international conservation initiatives, including signing the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) in 1992 at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro. Recognizing biodiversity as a global concern, India has pursued various national strategies to address the ecological, genetic, economic, scientific, educational, cultural, recreational, and aesthetic values of biological diversity.

Biological Diversity Act

The Biological Diversity Act of 2002 represents India's commitment to conserving its biological diversity in alignment with the CBD. This Act acknowledges the sovereign rights of states over their biological resources and seeks to ensure their conservation and sustainable use. It also facilitates access to these resources. To enforce the Act, the National Biodiversity Authority (NBA) was established in 2003. Headquartered in Chennai and operating under the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change (MoEFCC), the NBA is an autonomous statutory body responsible for implementing the Act's provisions.

Wildlife (Protection) Act

Enacted in 1972, the Wildlife (Protection) Act aims to safeguard India's wildlife and control poaching, smuggling, and illegal trade in wildlife and its derivatives. The Act has undergone seven amendments (in 1982, 1986, 1991, 1993, 2002, 2006, and 2013), each time enhancing penalties and introducing stricter measures. The Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change has proposed additional amendments to further strengthen the Act. Its primary objective is to protect endangered species and conserve ecologically significant protected areas.

Special Conservation Projects in India

To address the needs of endangered species, the Government of India has launched several targeted conservation projects aimed at protecting these species in their natural habitats.

Project Tiger

Launched on April 1, 1973, Project Tiger is one of India's most successful wildlife conservation initiatives. The project began with 9 tiger reserves, covering 16,339 km² and housing 268 tigers. Today, it has expanded to 49 reserves with a tiger population of 2,225. The project's primary goal is to ensure safe habitats for tigers and reverse their population decline. The selection of reserves reflects the ecotypical diversity of tiger habitats across India.

Project Elephant

Initiated in 1992 by the Ministry of Environment, Forests, and Climate Change, Project Elephant aims to protect India’s largest terrestrial mammal, the Asian elephant (Elephas maximus). With around 60% of the Asian elephant population residing in India, this project provides financial and technical support to states with significant elephant populations. The objectives of Project Elephant include:

1. Protecting elephants, their habitats, and migration corridors.

2. Addressing human-elephant conflicts.

3. Enhancing the welfare of captive elephants.

National Wildlife Action Plan

The National Wildlife Action Plan (NWAP) serves as a comprehensive strategy for wildlife conservation in India. The first NWAP, adopted in 1983, was implemented until 2001. It was succeeded by NWAP-2 for the period 2002-2016, which addressed emerging issues such as increased resource use and growing human populations. Based on evaluations of NWAP-2 and recommendations from the National Board for Wildlife, NWAP-3 was introduced for 2017-2031. This latest plan emphasizes the preservation of essential ecological processes, referred to as "Life Support Systems," which are crucial for food production, health, and sustainable development across all levels of society.

Chipko Movement and Forest Conservation Efforts

Chipko Movement

The Chipko Movement, which began in 1973, is a renowned forest conservation initiative in India. The term "Chipko" means "to embrace," reflecting how villagers hugged trees to prevent their logging. This grassroots movement was inspired by a similar protest from the early 18th century in Rajasthan, where the Bahnel community, led by a woman named Ave Devt, sacrificed their lives to save trees from royal decrees.

The modern Chipko Movement gained prominence in April 1973, when villagers in Mandal, located in the upper Alakananda Valley, spontaneously embraced trees to stop their felling. The movement quickly spread across the Himalayas in Uttar Pradesh over the next five years, particularly in response to a government decision to allocate forest land to a sports goods company. With support from the Dasoli Gram Swarajya Sangh (DGSS) and under the leadership of Chandi Prasad Bhatt, local women played a pivotal role in encircling the trees, thereby thwarting the logging efforts.

Forest Conservation Act

Enacted in 1980, the Forest Conservation Act is a key piece of legislation aimed at conserving India’s forests. This act applies to all of India except Jammu & Kashmir and came into effect on October 25, 1980. It represents a national commitment to protecting biodiversity and natural heritage by regulating forest land use. The Act mandates that any conversion of reserved forest land or diversion of forest land for non-forest purposes requires prior approval from the central government. If approval is granted, compensatory afforestation is required: either on an equivalent area or, if unavailable, in degraded forests at double the deforested area. The act was amended in 1988 to include stricter penalties for violations.

Biogeographic Classification of India

Biogeography studies the distribution of organisms and their habitats, focusing on environmental factors influencing these patterns. In India, Rodgers and Panwar's 1988 classification identified 10 distinct biogeographic zones, further divided into 27 biogeographic provinces. These zones represent major ecological units with similar community structures and species compositions. The biogeographic zones of India are:

1. Trans-Himalaya

2. Himalaya

3. Indian Desert

4. Semi-arid

5. Western Ghats

6. Deccan Peninsula

7. Gangetic Plains

8. Coast

9. North-East

10. Islands

Biogeographic provinces within these zones highlight specific communities separated by ecological barriers or environmental gradients.

Biogeographic Zones of India

1. Trans-Himalaya

The Trans-Himalaya region includes the high-altitude, cold mountainous areas of Ladakh, Jammu & Kashmir, North Sikkim, and the Lahaul and Spiti regions of Himachal Pradesh. Characterized by extreme cold and sparse vegetation, it hosts unique wildlife adapted to harsh conditions. The alpine steppe vegetation supports numerous endemic species. Notable fauna include the Snow Leopard and the migratory Black-necked Crane. The biogeographic provinces within this region are:

- Himalaya Ladakh Mountains (3.3%)

- Himalaya Tibetan Plateau (2.2%)

- Trans-Himalaya Sikkim (<0.1%)

2. Himalaya

The Himalaya zone features a diverse range of ecosystems, from alpine meadows to temperate forests and subtropical areas. Major wildlife includes the Ibex and the Red Panda. The biogeographic provinces in this region are:

- Himalaya North West Himalaya (2.1%)

- Himalaya-West Himalaya (1.6%)

- Himalaya Central Himalaya (0.2%)

- Himalaya East Himalaya (2.5%)

3. Indian Desert

This zone encompasses the arid and semi-arid regions of Rajasthan and Gujarat, characterized by extreme temperatures and sparse vegetation. Specialized flora and fauna, such as the Wild Ass, Blackbuck, Flamingo, and Desert Monitor, are adapted to these conditions. The biogeographic provinces are:

- Desert-Thar (5.4%)

-Desert Kachchh (1.1%)

4. Semi-arid

Adjacent to the Indian Desert, the Semi-arid zone transitions to more hospitable environments with scrublands, wetlands, and dry deciduous forests. Wildlife includes the Tiger, Asiatic Lion, Great Indian Bustard, and Gharial. The biogeographic provinces within this zone are:

- Semi-arid-Punjab Plains (3.7%)

-Semi-arid-Gujarat, Rajputana (12.9%)

5. Western Ghats

Running parallel to India's western coast, the Western Ghats are a biodiversity hotspot with tropical forests and high levels of endemism. Major wildlife species include the Lion-tailed Macaque, Malabar Civet, Hornbill, and Draco.

6. Deccan Peninsula

Covering much of central and southern India, the Deccan Peninsula features a range of landscapes, including plateaus, hills, forests, and plains. The Deccan Plateau is noted for its diverse habitats, such as dry deciduous forests, thorn forests, wetlands, savannahs, and moist deciduous forests. Major wildlife includes the Swamp Deer, Chital, and Elephant. The biogeographic provinces within this region are:

- Deccan Peninsular Central Highlands (7.3%)

- Deccan Peninsular Chota Nagpur (5.4%)

- Deccan Peninsular Eastern Highlands (6.3%)

- Deccan Peninsular Central Plateau (12.5%)

- Deccan Peninsular Deccan South (10.4%)

7. Gangetic Plains

Stretching across northern India, the Gangetic Plains include the fertile alluvial plains of the Ganges and its tributaries. This zone supports extensive agriculture and diverse vegetation due to its rich soil and perennial rivers. Key wildlife includes the Rhino, Gangetic Dolphin, and Nilgai. The biogeographic provinces are:

- Gangetic Plain Upper Gangetic Plains (6.3%)

- Gangetic Plain Lower Gangetic Plains (4.5%)

8. Coasts

This zone encompasses India's coastlines, featuring mangroves, estuaries, and varied coastal ecosystems. It supports unique marine life and flora adapted to coastal conditions. Major wildlife includes the Dugong, Dolphin, Tiger, and Sand Skink. The biogeographic provinces are:

- Coasts West Coast (0.6%)

- Coasts East Coast (1.9%)

- Coasts Lakshadweep (<0.1%)

9. North-East

Covering the northeastern states of India, this zone is renowned for its rich biodiversity, including rainforests, hills, and a wide range of flora and fauna adapted to tropical and subtropical climates. Notable wildlife includes the Pygmy Hog, Golden Langur, and Yellow-backed Sunbird. The biogeographic provinces are:

- North-East Brahmaputra Valley (2.0%)

- North-East North East Hills (3.2%)

10. Islands

The Islands zone encompasses the Andaman and Nicobar Islands in the Bay of Bengal. These isolated regions boast unique ecosystems, including diverse marine life, coral reefs, and endemic species. Notable wildlife includes Dolphins, the Narcondam Hornbill, and various turtles. The biogeographic provinces within this region are:

- Islands Andamans (0.2%)

- Islands Nicobar (0.1%)

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